Sri Lanka

The origin of the education system in Sri Lanka can be traced back to the introduction of Buddhism in the third century B.C. The centres of learning were located within the premises of Buddhist temples. For centuries the concept of equality in education remained deep-seated in the country’s value system and was nourished by the religion of the majority.

The present system is an outcome of an evolutionary process shaped by socio-economic and political factors and popular aspirations. Today Sri Lanka consists of a multireligious, multiethnic and multicultural society, where the majority is Sinhalese (74%).

Some of the more significant milestones in the democratization of the education process are: the introduction of the Free Education Scheme in 1943; the adoption of the mother tongue as the medium of instruction in all schools commencing with Grade I in 1945; the accelerated expansion of school and educational facilities in the1950s and 1960s; and the take-over of assisted schools by the State in the early 1960s.

The magnitude of the expansion of the school system since independence (1948) was enormous. The pupil population increased from 0.9 million to 4.17 million, the number of teachers and principals in all schools rose from 26,767 to 189,543, and the number of schools climbed from 5,792 to 10,191. It is noteworthy to understand that this expansion occurred at the time when a diminishing proportion of Gross National Product (GNP) was allocated to education. Education accounted for nearly 5% of GNP in the 1960s and over the years dropped to a value of less than 4% by 1993.

A rapid expansion without a proportionate increase in resources led to a multiplicity of problems in providing equal educational opportunities. On the other hand, the slow growth rate and failure in the expansion of the economy resulted in a large number of educated youth remaining unemployed.

The Education Reforms Committee (ERC) was appointed in 1977. The ECR Report (1982) recommended certain reforms in the structure and content of the education system. The White Paper proposals for education reforms of 1981 provided a basic framework for action. The proposals were submitted to public debate. Some of them were implemented, some tried out and abandoned, and some others remained for future implementation.

The major changes introduced in the 1980s were: the implementation of a school cluster system; the decentralization of the education administration system; the strengthening of higher education; the introduction of school-level planning and a continuous assessment system in schools.

The educational reforms of 1997 have been based on the recommendations made by the National Education Commission, established by a Parliamentary Act in 1991. The main characteristics of these reforms could be summarized as follows:

·        promoting equal opportunities for primary pupils and improving the quality of education:

·        implementing a new General Certificate of Education, Advanced-level examination (GCE A-level);

·        streamlining the organization and functions of the Ministry and re-organizing the schools’ structure;

·        introducing school-based assessment at all stages and improving teacher education;

·        strengthening English language teaching.

The difficulty of ensuring provision of schooling under stable conditions in the Northern and Eastern provinces which are affected by unsettled conditions has hampered the efforts to improve education in all parts of the country. Significant numbers of the population in these provinces are living as refugees in other provinces utilizing available schooling facilities. The schooling in areas immediately adjacent to these provinces is also adversely affected because of continuing threats of displacement and the lack of teachers.

A comprehensive education reform is implemented from 1998. Under this reform, a competence-based curriculum was designed, piloted in a sample of schools and implemented island-wide in 1999. This revision focuses its attention on providing learner-centred activities rather than book learning and desk work (MEHE, 1999). The phase of curricular reforms encompassing primary and secondary education was concluded in 2003.

The education reforms were proposed with two primary goals in mind. They were intended to: (i) provide a system of education that would equip students with the necessary knowledge, skills and attitudes, to empower them and make them employable and productive citizens of Sri Lanka; and (ii) create a generation of young people with correct values, compassion and care towards fellow citizens and who will be able to live with tolerance towards one another.

In the light of World Declaration on Education (2000), the National Education Commission put forward nine national educational goals targeting a learning society in the future. The nine goals are:

·        Achievement of national cohesion, national integrity, and national amity.

·        The establishment of pervasive patterns of social justice.

·        The evolution of a sustainable pattern of living.   

·        The preparation for work opportunities that are dignified satisfying and self-fulfilling.

·        The institution of a variety of possibilities for all to participate in Human Resources Development.

·        The generation of a continuous sense of deep and abiding concern for are another.

·        Learning to learn and adapt to changing situations.

·        The capacity to cope with the complex and the unforeseen.

·        The development of competencies, which will help secure honorable place in the international community.

Among other things introduced with the education reforms a separate branch for EFA activities was established in the Ministry of Education. In May 2001, this special branch started its work involving EFA planning, monitoring and researches. Since then, it has been functioning as EFA coordinating body of the country and a number of programmes have been implemented.

Although access to the primary stage is creditable, at the secondary level participation rates have to be improved. Getting the last 10% of children in the compulsory span of schooling to the school system is a challenging task. Positive intervention programmes need to be adopted to achieve the goal of universal basic education. Secondly, the learning achievement levels of pupils need further improvement. Studies that have been carried out as well as analysis of examination results show that the standards in learning achievement are inadequate. A strategy for enhancing learning achievement needs better teachers motivating the marginalized groups of children, better-equipped classrooms using modern technology, supportive supervision programmes and greater rapport with the community and the parents. Thirdly equally important as learning achievement is the need to develop general competencies, which would stand in good stead when these children go out to the wider society to be productive citizens. Similarly inculcation of values and the concept of learning to live together are of high priority in the context of the prevailing violence in society.

This requires greater resources and during the last two decades as the country had to spend on defense to contain Northern conflict the resource allocation for education has been dwindling. Although in recent years a peace agreement has been in force, the government still has to maintain the defense structure and also invests considerably on the reconstruction of war-damaged areas. The need for further funding is a major constraint for provision of quality inputs.

The existing legislative framework comprises the Education Ordinance of 1939, the subsequent amendments to that ordinance and a number of acts enacted to set up various supportive bodies.

The main objective of enforcement of the Regulation on Compulsory Education (1997), which came into force in 1998, is to ensure that all children in the age group 5-14 years attend school. Special committees have been set up to motivate parents to send their children to schools, and some conditions related to entry requirements have been relaxed. A mass campaign using media is being carried out to ensure the provision of compulsory education. The regulation also indicates an intention of providing at least nine years of compulsory schooling. This intention is also reflected in the proposal under the education reforms to have a two-tier school structure with a nine-year elementary school and a four-year senior school (MEHE, 1999).

An important constitutional amendment that led to far reaching effects on the management of the education system has been the 13^th Amendment to the Constitution, which created the Provincial Council System. Under this piece of legislation most of the functions performed by the Central Government have been devolved to the Provincial Authorities.

The Ministry of Human Resources Development, Education and Cultural Affairs (MHRDECA, now the Ministry of Education) is responsible for general education, pirivena education (see below), and teacher education nationwide. In addition to the Divisions in charge of the different programmes, there are the following major statutory institutions under the MHRDECA: the Department of Examinations and National Testing Service; the Department of Educational Publications; the National Institute of Education; and the National Library Services Board.

Education is a shared function between the centre and the provinces. The Ministry of Education is responsible for national policies and plans, the management of national schools (which are 323 in number), teacher education, higher education, as well as the maintenance of standards in all schools including quality assurance. There are eight Provincial Councils coterminous with the provinces except the North Eastern Provincial Council which is formed by temporarily merging the Northern province and the Eastern province. There is a provincial Ministry of Education in each province under a Provincial Minister assisted by a Provincial Secretary of Education. The pre-schools and schools are managed by the provincial Departments of Education under a Provincial Director of Education. For purposes of administration, the provinces are divided into a number of Educational Zones headed by a Zonal Director of Education. The administrative functions and supervision of schools are mainly handled by the Zonal Education Office. Each Zone has approximately 100 to 150 schools. The Zones are further sub-divided into Divisions and the Divisional Officer in charge of a division functions as a field officer to assist the Zonal Director. (MOE, 2001).

All public examinations are conducted by the Department of Examinations. Although it covers more than 400 different examinations each year, the Department's heaviest commitment is in the area of the following examinations: Grade V Scholarship at the end of primary education, General Certificate of Education Ordinary-level and GCE Advanced-level.

The Department of Educational Publications is responsible for preparing, editing, publishing and distributing of school textbooks. All textbooks for Years I-XI are provided free of charge to pupils, including those who attend private schools and pirivenas (see below).

The National Institute of Education, which functions under the MHRDECA, is responsible for implementation of activities mainly in the field of teacher training, educational management, curriculum development and educational research. The Institute carries out the above activities according to the policy decisions and changes undertaken by the government from time to time.

The Government appointed the National Education Commission (NEC) in 1991 as an advisory body in matters of reform and innovation, co-ordination and rationalization of educational policies. The NEC played a key role in policy-making at the national level. The National Human Resources Development Council (NHRDC) commenced functioning as a corporate body with effect from 1 January 1999. This was made possible through the provisions of the National Human Resources Development Council of Sri Lanka Act No. 18 of 1997. Up to then, it functioned as an administrative arrangement, by Cabinet decision, first, under the Ministry of Youth Affairs from 1987, and subsequently, under the Ministry of Science and Technology.

The mission of the Ministry of Tertiary Education and Training with non-Cabinet rank status (now the Ministry of Skills Development, Vocational and Technical Education) is to formulate and implement policies, strategies and plans in collaboration with all stakeholders in education and training including the employees in order to maintain an efficient tertiary education and training system which meets the challenging needs of the industry. Main statutory institutions under the Ministry include: the Tertiary and Vocational Education Commission; the Vocational Training Authority; the National Institute of Technical Education; the National Apprenticeship and Industrial Training Authority; the University Grants Commission; and the Open University of Sri Lanka.

Established in 1979, the University Grants Commission (UGC) is the apex body of the university system in Sri Lanka which operates within the framework of the Universities Act No. 16 of 1978. The functions of the UGC are to: allocate funds to the   universities and university institutes; serve as central admission agency for undergraduate studies in universities; plan, co-ordinate and monitor the activities of the university system with a view to maintaining standards; and implement the national policies in respect of university education. The UGC funds higher education, research and related activities at twenty-six institutions including: thirteen universities, six post-graduate institutes, and seven higher education institutes.

Policy implementation is increasingly becoming a provincial function with the establishment of the Provincial Councils of Education, in accordance with the Constitution adopted in 1978 and amended on 14 November 1987. Zonal Offices provide support services at the local level.

A Presidential Task Force on Education was set up in 1997 to make further and more detailed recommendations regarding educational reforms. The Provincial Councils of Education have the authority to decide implementation strategies within their areas of jurisdiction and control the schools and teacher deployment in the schools except in the case of national schools, which come directly under the MHRDECA (MEHE, 1999).

Schools in Sri Lanka are classified in different categories as shown below:

• Type 1AB: Schools with classes up to GCE (A-level) in all streams including science
• Type 1C: Schools with classes up to GCE (A-level) in arts and commerce streams
• Type II: Schools with classes from grade 1 to 11, i.e. GCE (O-level)
• Type III: Primary schools, grades 1 to 5

The total number of schools managed by the government in 2003 was 9,790, out of which 323 were national schools under the Central Ministry and 9,467 schools were managed by the provinces.

Distribution schools, teachers and pupils (2003)

Source: School Census, 2003.

The history of pirivena education goes back to the third century B.C., when Buddhism was first officially introduced. Pirivena is the institution which delivered the formal education from primary level to higher education, now classified as: mulika pirivena (Grades I-VI), maha pirivena (Grades VI-XI) and pirivena vidyayathanaya (from Grade X to higher education). Teacher salaries are paid by the government and these institutes are under the supervision of the MHRDECA.