Turkmenistan

Turkmenistan: structure of the education system

Pre-school education is provided by three types of institutions: crèches, for children up to 3 years old; kindergartens, for children aged 3-6 years; and combined kindergartens (crèche and kindergarten). Pre-school education is not compulsory.

The compulsory general secondary education programme consists of two stages: Sovat (“reading and writing”) covering Grades I-III (Grades I-IV in schools teaching in the Russian, Uzbek and Kazakh languages); and Bilim (“knowledge”) covering Grades IV-IX (Grades V-X in schools teaching in the Russian, Uzbek and Kazakh languages). The admission age is 7.

Upon completion of the general secondary education programme, students sit the state examinations for the school-leaving certificate. Colleges and technical lyceums are to be established in order to offer two-year programmes to secondary school-leavers, preparing them for the university and/or training them at the technician level. Postsecondary vocational-technical education is offered at: training vocational centres (one to six months of study, leading to a certificate of qualification according to the profession); vocational colleges (six to ten months of study, leading to a diploma); and vocational lyceums (one and a half years of study, leading to a diploma).

Specialized secondary education at postsecondary level is offered by colleges (medical, pedagogical, musical and artistic) and technical schools. The duration of courses ranges from two to four years. Upon completion of the course, students passing the state examinations are awarded a Diploma of Specialized Secondary Education.

Higher education establishments (institutes, the university, the academy and the conservatory) offer programmes in a variety of fields. The duration of courses ranges from four to six years (engineering, five years; medicine, five to six years) leading to the Higher Education Diploma of Specialist. Postgraduate programmes generally last three years and involve the preparation and defense of a thesis. Successful candidates at the public examination administered by the Supreme Certification Committee are awarded the Ph.D. degree. In recent years, the duration of university studies has been shortened.

In accordance with the current legislation, a variety of educational establishments can function in Turkmenistan. They are classified based on the nature of their property ownership––State, private or mixed. State educational establishments are still quite prevalent, as the process of forming of alternative educational establishments is developing slowly.

However, the first eleven joint Turkmen-Turkish schools have been established, as well as one Turkmen-Turkish university––a development which has the potential to greatly affect the character of future education system financing. Nevertheless, the major financial resource for education in the country is the State budget. Additional sources come from: social security funds; co-operatives; social and other enterprises and organizations; as well as the population.

The inadequate material and technical situation presents a major problem, in particular for vocational-technical schools. The lack of modern equipment and visual aids is one of the main causes for the low quality of training at the vocational-technical establishments. During recent years, the State budget provisions have been negligible for financing such items as capital investments and school expenditures, while allocations for capital repairs and the purchase of equipment stock have also been reduced.

Several factors have constricted education sector financing during the transition period: the difficult economic situation of industrial and agricultural enterprises; a decrease in the real income level of the population; and the lack of the necessary legislative and normative acts, regulating the procedure for collecting educational services payments. Structural changes in the financing of educational establishments from non-budget resources have been closely monitored. In this context, it has been observed that in 1990 more than half of the resources of co-operatives, government and social institutions was spent on kindergarten maintenance; in 1995, kindergarten maintenance accounted for less than 23 % of their institutional resources.

Decentralization of financing was implemented as a part of the education sector reform process. Beginning in 1993, the budget policy embraced decentralization of social and cultural sphere financing––including education. In this context, the pre-school institutions, general education schools, out-of-school establishments, special secondary educational institutions are now supported by the local government authorities (provinces, regions and cities) through organizational subdivisions responsible for dealing with education issues. This decentralization policy has resulted in local budget education sector increments––83 % in 1995 compared to 74% in 1991. Distribution of education resources through the local budgets requires rational usage of such allocations; including proper regard for local character and conditions.

The annual budget for education is fixed by the Ministry of Economy and Finances based on proposals of: the Ministry of Education; ministries and departments having their own network of educational establishments; higher education institutions; as well as velayat bodies of education. Budget estimates are submitted to the Parliament for approval. The budget estimates are based on several indices: quota of children at pre-school institutions; number of pupils and students; number of employees; number of seats at the educational establishments, etc.

The Ministry of Economy and Finances (MEF) handles the financing of higher education institutions which permits institutional economic autonomy. The higher education institutions themselves prepare budget estimates, which are submitted directly to the MEF for approval. Payments (within the projected budget lines) are allocated based on billings submitted and actual work implemented. The financing of higher educational institution expenditures is thereby accomplished within the existing budget revenues and, in order to assure that expenditures of the State budget conform to line item targets, the payments are made through the Treasury Department of the MEF and its local bodies.

Expenditures must be made in accordance with the directives regarding approved norms for labour payments, nutrition, grants and index coefficients. Functional norms are used for purchase of training appliances, equipment, stock as well as capital repairs and construction. Since the State budget is the main source for education financing in Turkmenistan, the process for the development of budgets and disbursement of funds (described in the example below) is based on this premise.

First, the Ministry of Education, together with the institutions under its supervision, devises the budget line item expenditures, taking into consideration the prevailing norms (consumption of energy, food, etc.) and prices specified by the Ministry of Trade. Currently, the so-called “union norms” (which were used in the former USSR) are still being used in Turkmenistan. Then the proposed budget is submitted to the MEF for approval. Second, the MEF considers every item of the submitted budget, taking into consideration a full array of factors, including: budget revenues; actual usage of funds during the prior year fiscal period; extreme conditions (i.e. emergency state of buildings, etc.). As a rule, certain line items are approved without modification (i.e. salary, extra charges, student grants, nutrition, etc.). But other line item expenditures (usually contracted) are frequently modified (i.e. economy expenses, purchase of equipment, upholstered stock, capital repairs, etc.)

Then, after budget approval, the MEF provides the financing to the Ministry of Education, for support of the institutions under its jurisdiction. In turn, the Ministry of Education directly finances each of its establishments, designated in the central budget. The MEF and local authorities (without the participation of the Ministry of Education) agree on a budget for those educational establishments that are financed under the local budget (pre-school institutions, general education schools, out-of-school institutions, etc.).

The cost allocations are determined according to the type of educational institution (pre-school, out-of-school, schools, etc.). The establishment of line items for the velayats and etraps is carried out by the provincial management responsible for education, economy and finances. (In the regions, a similar process occurs to determine the resource allocations for each educational institution). The norms utilized for financing of educational institutions are out-of-date and need improvement. On the one hand, the decentralization of financing of educational institutions (in particular schools and pre-school institutions) has promoted the democratization process. On the other hand, it has resulted in the irrational utilization of financial means––due to the low skill levels of employees at the local education management bodies.

Pre-school education is divided into two stages. The first stage caters children up to 3 years old. These children are taken care of in groups by personnel with a medical education (as a rule, secondary medical personnel). The second stage is for children aged 3-6. At this level, pre-school institutions begin a systematic education and training process.

The group structure at the pre-school institutions has the following gradation:

·        up to 3 years: crèche groups;

·        3 years old: junior group;

·        4 years old: medium group;

·        5 years old: senior group;

·        6 years old: preparatory group.

The educational content is determined by the State Programme for Training and Teaching at the Pre-school Institution. The new programme was developed and approved in 1995 by the Ministry of Education. Pre-school education includes the following components: Surrounding world; language improvement; Mathematics; Manual skills; Fine arts; Physical training; Singing and music; Fiction.

In the senior and preparatory groups (excluding the above mentioned subjects), teaching of reading and writing is introduced, as well as learning of three languages––Turkmen (native), Russian (native) and foreign. Languages are taught by teachers having a special education in the specific subject language, for sixteen hours per week. In the senior and preparatory groups, the teaching of each of the languages mentioned requires seventy hours annually (two lessons per week). Special programmes for the language subjects have been developed.

Programmes for assessing and monitoring pupils’ and students’ learning achievement nationwide are not reported.

Higher education provides citizens of Turkmenistan with: the basic scientific and practical training; an area of specialization consistent with their interests and capabilities; the opportunity for improvement of their professional skills and additional training. Higher education also provides for the training of scientific and pedagogical personnel.

The training of specialists (higher education) is carried out on the basis of general secondary education. This training is full-time in higher education institutions. Successful students are awarded the qualification of specialist (higher education) in a given professional specialization. In this context, the various levels achieved are dictated by the volume or comprehensiveness of the programme followed.

     The following ministries and departments operate higher education institutions: Ministry of Education: seven institutions; Ministry of Culture: three institutions; Ministry of Defense: one institution; Ministry of Industry and Energy: one institution; Ministry of Health and Medical Industry: one institution; State Committee for Physical Training: one institution; Ministry of the Interior: one institution.

The higher school has one stage. Specialized secondary educational institutions (SSEI) operate as the initial component of specialized vocational training.

The following types of the higher education institutions are available in Turkmenistan: university, institute, conservatory and academy. In 1996, the first technical college with the license to train specialists requiring higher qualifications was established in Mary. All higher education institutions provide equivalent levels of training and can train specialists with a higher education qualification. An academy, conservatory or college has the same status as an institute. The duration of training ranges from four to six years, depending on the specialization.

            The Cabinet of Ministers, by the resolution of the President: nominates rectors and pro-rectors; determines the procedure of establishment, reorganization, liquidation of higher education institutions; prescribes the examination procedure for pedagogical and scientific personnel; approves higher education diplomas.

The Ministry of Education: co-ordinates the activities of higher education institutions; develops normative acts and instructions concerning the organization of educational, methodological and scientific work; approves specialities, curriculum and educational training programmes for personnel in the higher and secondary specializations; elaborates the terms for enrolment in the higher education institutions and the standard statutes of educational establishments; approves salary schemes based on position titles (classifications).

Ministries and departments (having their own networks of higher education institutions): establish enrolment plans for admission into higher education institutions and assign graduating students to the enterprises and institutions in their respective branches; define specializations for the training of specialists; develop curricula and educational programmes for the training of specialists; control the selection and placement of personnel.

The Ministry of Economy and Finances funds higher education institutions from the State budget and controls their financial and economic activities.

Although the internal management scheme (presented in the figure below) depends on the specific character of the institution, differences between various institutions are insignificant.

Internal scheme of management

Higher education institutions are free to determine their respective organization, economic structures and in addressing financial problems; this autonomy, however, is within the limits of a normative framework that has emerged based on a large number of prevalent examples.

            State higher education institutions include: one university, eleven institutes, one academy, one college and one conservatory. An analysis of the number of higher education institutions by type reveals that there is a positive correlation between the predominance of certain types of institutes and the organizational structure currently in place for highly specialized personnel training.

            Since 1991, the number of higher education institutions has sharply increased (by six units). After independence, Turkmenistan had to face the necessity to train personnel for a number of significant branches of the economy. From 1993-1995, the training of military experts and of specialists for the energy, transport and communication sectors was undertaken; the same applies to different specializations in the cultural sphere.

            Higher education institutions mainly offer programmes developed during the former Soviet period with some additions and amendments being stipulated by specific local character and transition period peculiarities.

Higher education institutions, 1990-1996

Total number of students (in thousands)

Geographical distribution of higher education institutions

Number of students enrolled according to the type of institution

At the beginning of 1995/96, more than 32,000 students were enrolled in higher education institutions, which was 1.3 times lower than 1990/91 figures. This decrease was due to the elimination of tuition by correspondence and part-time training, which previously accounted for more than one third of the student enrolment.

Further analyses reveal that, during the above mentioned periods, the average number of students per higher education institution declined––from 4,600 to 2,100. On the one hand, this was due to a decrease in the number of student enrolments; on the other hand, this was an outcome of the establishment of six new educational institutions. It should be mentioned that, on the whole, these changes have had a positive impact on the organization of the educational process, providing students with hostels, libraries, etc.

Most higher education institutions are located in the capital, Ashkhabad. In Mary city, recent activities in the energy sector have spurred relatively high rates of development, requiring a decision in favour of the establishment of a higher education institution. Such a decision was adopted in 1992.

Students enrolled in higher education institutions according to sex

Student enrolments by gender are not representative of the demographic structure of the population of Turkmenistan. In 1990/91, female students share in higher education accounted for 41.3%; in 1995/96, this figure had dropped to 36.4%. Thus, during the period under consideration there was a negative tendency in female participation in higher education. This is explained by the fact that, in recent years, a number of higher education institutions have been established for the ministries of Defence, Internal Affairs, Industry and Energy, Transport and Communication, which either did not make provision for female enrolment or offered training programmes that have not traditionally attracted the interest of women.

In 1995/96, the number of students enrolled in economic specializations decreased 1.6 times in comparison to 1990/91. This is a rather contradictory trend, given the current environment of market transformations. However, the decrease of students enrolled in agricultural specialities––from 6,200 to 3,600––reflects the agrarian reorientation which is occurring in the country, with a shift from the large collective farms toward small private farms.