Malawi

Pre-school education is provided by day care centres and pre-school playgroups (children aged 3-5½). Attendance is not compulsory. It is estimated that access to pre-school education has risen from 1% in 1994 to 23% in 1999, but there is no officially endorsed record of the total number of pre-school playgroups and day care centres. The general picture, however, shows that pre-school playgroups are mainly available in the urban area.

Primary education lasts eight years organized into three cycles: infant (Standards I-II), junior (Standards III-V) and senior (Standards VI-VIII). The primary education programme culminates in the Primary School Leaving Certificate Examination (PSLCE). This examination is also used as a selection tool to allocate the limited number of places in secondary schools. Primary education is free but not compulsory.

Secondary education lasts four years, divided into two stages of two years’ duration each. The first stage (Forms I-II) prepares students for Junior Certificate Examination. The second stage (Forms III-IV) culminates in the Malawi School Certificate Examination.

Post-secondary education varies in length, depending on the type of training programme. Teacher-training programmes currently last one year (before the introduction of Free Primary Education, they normally lasted two years). Diploma and degree programmes at the university level take three to five years of study. The Polytechnic offers apprenticeship courses lasting two to four years.

Education’s share of the national recurrent budget decreased from 13.9% in 1979/80 to only 9.8% in 1990/91. To reverse the trend of underfunding, it was planned to increase the share of the budget for the social sectors and education to 15%. In 1992/93 it stood at 17%. Between 1994 and 1996 the share rose to 21%.

Regarding the distribution of public expenditure by level of education, the education sector has shifted its priorities in allocating resources. Soon after independence and during the 1970s and early 1980s, the University of Malawi had a disproportionately large share of educational resources.

During the Second Educational Development Plan (1985-1995), resources for primary education steadily increased from 38% to 48% of total recurrent expenditure on education. In 1993/94, the recurrent expenditure on primary education rose to 51%. In 1993/94, the expenditure per pupil at the primary level was 84.5 Malawi kwacha (MK). The next largest item was the University, with about 18% of all expenditure and an average expenditure per student of MK14,990.4. Administration represented 6% of all expenditure. Secondary schools represented 10%, with an average expenditure per secondary school student of MK712.6. Expenditure for the Malawi College of Distance Education (MCDE) was 2%, with an expenditure of MK119.4 per student. Unit expenditure on student-teachers and technical students amounted to MK3,624 and MK3,316.8, respectively. This may be partly attributed to the relatively low student-tutor ratios.

During the 1996/97 fiscal year, more than a quarter of total public expenditure was directed towards the education sector and 50% of this amount was allocated to primary education. Public current expenditure on primary education as a percentage of GDP has risen from 1% in 1990/91 to 3% in 1997/98. Public current expenditure on primary education per pupil as a percentage of GDP per capita rose from 7% in 1990/91 to 11% in 1994/95, and then declined to 9% in 1998/99 (Ministry of Education, 1999).

In the 1999/2000 Education Sector budget the allocation for primary sub-sector was 50%, while for secondary sub-sector was 25%.  Allocations for teacher education and other tertiary education were 7% and 13% respectively, as shown in the tables below.

Education sector budget 1999/2000 (in 000s)

Source:  Ministry of Education, 2004.

Source:  Ministry of Education, 2004.

In Malawi, early childhood education (ECC) is one of the recent developments in the education sector and its origin can be traced to the late 1960s, when Christian churches and church-related organizations opened a few pre-school playgroups in the urban centres of the country. These initiatives were a response to the needs a few full-time employed women in the urban areas, who lacked officially designed and designated places for the care and recreation of their children while they were at work.

The government then recognized the need for pre-school playgroups and through the Ministry of Community Development and Social Welfare, started supporting the activities of ECC in the early 1970s. In 1970, the government facilitated the formation of the Association for Pre-school Playgroups of Malawi (APPM), a non-governmental organization, with a mandate to co-ordinate the activities of pre-school playgroups and day care centres with the assistance of District Social Welfare Officers. The government subsidizes the running costs of the APPM and also provides teaching aids to the groups/centres through the National Library Services.

According to the APPM Policy Document, the pre-school programme in Malawi aims at promoting the social, intellectual, emotional and physical development of children aged 3-5½. The programme focuses on ‘education through play  and proper care of children in a healthy and friendly environment. Increasing urbanization, the rise in number of families with both parents having full employment and the increase in public awareness of the importance of education have expanded the demand for pre-school playgroups.

In 1994, following the government commitment to expand basic education, the Ministry of Women, Children, Community services and Social Welfare (now the Ministry of Gender, Youth and Community Services) prepared a policy document on Early Childhood Care and Development Activities (ECCDA). This document states that the aim of ECCDA in Malawi shall be to provide high quality and improved coverage of early childhood education programmes by:

·        ensuring the survival, protection, development, participation and dignity of the young child;

·        ensuring that every child has access to basic and appropriate development and learning practices and standards of early childhood development education which include cognitive, physical, emotional, social and spiritual development without discrimination;

·        providing guidelines from which action programmes and services can be developed to facilitate meaningful provision of early childhood development education facilities and services.

Accordingly, the government shall endeavor to:

·        expand quality ECCDA programmes through the already existing mechanisms and encourage the provision and sustainability of ECCDA activities;

·        strengthen partnership between interested parties in ECCDA programmes to avoid duplication;

·        set up and maintain a databank for easy and quick retrieval of information pertaining to ECCDA programmes;

·        mobilize internal and external resources (human, material and financial) for more effective ECCDA interventions;

·        promote the role of families and communities in ECCDA programmes and strengthen their responsibilities in these areas;

·        encourage the exploration of innovative ECCDA initiatives;

·        encourage the establishment of more ECCDA centres;

·        promote inclusive pre-schooling in order to achieve integration for children with special needs;

·        increase and intensify advocacy for ECCDA services at all levels;

·        provide institutional support to institutions that develop the curriculum and train personnel;

The fundamental objective of primary education is to instill basic literacy and numeracy. Apart from committing itself to open and free access to primary education for all children, the government continues to put special attention on the quality and lasting nature (or durability) of primary education.

The primary school curriculum has been revised and is being implemented in Standards I-IV nationwide. Camera-ready copies for Standard V instructional materials were finalized in readiness for printing and implementation in 1997. Standard VI materials in all other subjects are being trial-tested in schools except for Chichewa, English, social studies and mathematics which have already been published.

For a number of years Chichewa was used as a national language and a medium of instruction in the lower primary school. The use of Chichewa created lots of problems in areas where this language was not the mother tongue. The governments  new language policy is to encourage the use of vernacular languages as media of instruction in Standards I-IV. However, English and Chichewa will continue to be taught as subjects. Similarly, from 1992, religious education covers the three major religions: Christianity, Islam, and African traditional religions. This, coupled with vigorous social mobilization campaigns, has boosted enrolment in Islamic communities who previously feared to enrol children in schools which were predominantly Christian in culture.

            The primary curriculum matrix is presented in the table below:

The primary curriculum is being reviewed through the Primary Curriculum and Assessment Review programme (PCAR). The PCAR process is a consultative process responding to needs of the nation. The major departure from the current curriculum is introduction of the readiness year, learning areas and continuous assessment. The government’s new language policy is to encourage the use of local vernacular languages as media of instruction in Standards I to IV. However, English and Chichewa are taught as subjects. From Standard V onwards, English is a medium of instruction.

When free primary education was introduced, there were 27,748 teachers representing a teacher-pupil ratio of about 1:100. The Ministry of Education then recruited 22,000 additional teachers. Apart from a short two-week orientation course, these did not receive any formal training. The recruitment of the untrained teachers lowered the teacher-pupil ratio to approximately 1:68 in 1993/94. By 2000 there was an average of 65 children per teacher in rural schools against 46 pupils per teacher in urban schools.

In 1994, the primary school population increased by 68%. More recent figures (March 1996) suggest that there are 3.1 million children in approximately 4,000 primary schools. The primary school enrolment during 1991–1999 is shown in the table below:

Primary school enrolment, 1991–1999

Source: Ministry of Education, 2004.

Primary school enrolment has been stabilized at around 3 million. The 1997 figure represented a Gross Enrolment Ratio (GER) of 135.6% and a Net Enrolment Ratio (NER) of about 95%. Before 1994 the NER was only 68%. This is a considerable improvement in access to primary education, although the introduction of the FPE brought its own challenges. The increase in enrolment had made the shortage of classrooms, teachers and teaching and learning materials even more acute. The quality of the system suffered seriously particularly in the first year of FPE. Repetition and dropout rates increased significantly from 1993/94 to 1994/95, the first year of FPE. The situation is now improving, but it is still problematic.

Primary school results for 1994 showed a general increase in the pass percentage, as shown in the table below:

National PSLCE examination results 1992-94

Note:  PSLCE = Primary School-Leaving Certificate Examination.

Source:  Basic Education Statistics, Malawi, 1994.

For a number of years, the primary school system in Malawi has suffered from a high level of internal inefficiency characterized by high repetition and drop-out rates. However, remarkable progress in improving efficiency has been made as can be seen from the table below.

Repetition rates by Standard 1992-94 (%)

Source: Basic Education Statistics, Malawi, 1994.

It can be observed that the highest rate of repetition is in Standards I, II and VIII. Higher rates in the lower Standards are often associated with very large classes and teachers unprepared to cope with them, inadequate individual attention to students and lack of learning materials. These factors result in children failing to be promoted to the next grade. Lack of money for school fees before the introduction of free primary education also used to cause a child to re-enter the system after a period of time. In Standard VIII, pupils often repeat in an attempt to improve their Primary School Leaving Certificate scores so as to gain access to secondary school.

In order to reduce repetition, a number of measures have been introduced, including:

·        reduction of distances that pupils travel to schools by establishing community schools;

·        abolition of school fees (the school uniform is no longer compulsory);

·        increasing the number of teachers;

·        discouraging pupils to repeat in one class for too long, especially in Standard VIII, by allowing pupils to enrol in the Malawi College of Distance Education (MCDE) and by lowering the selection quota for repeaters (75% of Form I places in public secondary schools were reserved for non-repeaters, 25% for first-time repeaters and 5% for multiple repeaters).

The drop-out trends show that Standard I has the highest drop-out rate, as can be seen in the table below.

Drop-out rates by Standard (1993/94)

Source:  Basic Education Statistics, Malawi 1994.

The difference between sexes in drop-out rates is quite significant in the senior primary classes. There are various reasons why girls drop out, with pregnancy and early marriage being the most important factors. Girls will often reach puberty before completing primary school. For fear of an unwanted pregnancy, some parents withdraw their daughters from school when they reach puberty. Some traditional practices such as initiation ceremonies also contribute to the dropping out of girls. Girls in most circumstances are required to help with housework and child care. This interference with school work and study time causes poor academic performance which often results in repetition and dropping out.

Drop-out rates are higher in Standard I than in subsequent Standards, a pattern that is visible from the early 1990s to 2000. Standard I drop-out rates fell significantly in 1991/92 and 1994/95, corresponding to periods when the Free Primary Education was introduced. Standard I drop-out rate increased sharply in 1995/96 following the implementation of Free Primary Education to 30% and gradually declined in subsequent years reaching 20% in 2000.

Primary education was, for a number of years, considered as a terminal educational stage for the large majority of school leavers who were in most cases directly entering into the labour market. However, in recent years there has been an exceedingly high demand for secondary education since it is viewed as a gateway to higher paying jobs in the formal sector.

In spite of the available alternative avenues of post-primary education and training, e.g. the Malawi College of Distance Education (MCDE) and private institutions, the demand for secondary education remains high. Thus, secondary education opportunities have shifted from being geared towards primarily serving economic development, to serving the social demand as well. It is from this perspective that the government plans to build 250 additional secondary schools in order to increase access.

Until 1998, secondary education in Malawi was offered through conventional secondary schools and Distance Education Centres (DECs). In 1999, a new policy directive converted all DECs into Community Day Secondary Schools (CDSSs), creating a unified system of secondary education. As a result of this initiative, the government has now assumed more responsibility over the CDSSs than before, especially in terms of financing.

Under the new unified system, there are the following types of secondary schools: (i) day and boarding schools: they are operated and funded directly by the government via Education Division Offices; (ii) grant-aided schools: these are operated by religious organizations with a government contribution consisting of monthly grants to their day-to-day running costs and teachers  salaries; tuition and boarding fees are much higher than in government schools; (iii) Community Day Secondary Schools (CDSS): these are mostly initiated and financed by the school committees but receive some government funding to cater for day-to-day running costs and teacher and support staff salaries; (iv) private schools: these are schools owned by private individuals or non-governmental organizations which receive no grant at all from the government and charge tuition fees; (v) designated schools: these are mostly for expatriates and are given nominal government grants; (vi) night secondary schools and distance education: this mainly cater for employees and house-wives interested in improving their academic qualifications and young people who have failed to gain access to all the other secondary institutions for one reason or the other.

According to the Secondary School Census, in 1997 there were 624 secondary education institutions in Malawi, including both government and private registered institutions. At present there are over 1,000 secondary schools in the country. Of these schools 101 are government schools (day schools, boarding and day schools with limited boarding facilities) and 600 are community day schools. The number of community day schools is fluid as communities are allowed to open schools at will. The number of private schools secondary is not easy to ascertain, but it estimated at 300.

The secondary education curriculum includes the following subjects:

Junior Certificate (Forms I and II):

Core subjects: Chichewa, English, mathematics, physical science, biology, general science, agriculture, history, geography and physical education.

Optional subjects: Technical drawing/home economics, woodwork, metalwork, art, Bible knowledge, French and Latin.

Malawi School Certificate (Forms III and IV):

Core subjects: Chichewa, English, mathematics, physical science and biology or general science, history or geography and agriculture.

Optional subjects: Technical drawing and metalwork, technical drawing and woodwork, home economics, needlework and dressmaking, French, Latin, Bible knowledge, art, geography and history.

One of the effects of the increased social demand for secondary education is the record 200% increase in enrolment over the past ten years in the Malawi College of Distance Education (MCDE). In 1993/94, the MCDE enrolled 42,308 students; 27,979 were in JCE courses (i.e. lower secondary school), and 14,164 were enrolled for the MSCE (Malawi School Certificate of Education). Only 165 were enrolled in the PSLC course. The unique feature of the Malawi College of Distance Education is the centres programme. The philosophy behind the establishment of these centres was that pupils with the Primary School Leaving Certificate were still not mature enough to study on their own by correspondence, hence communities built centres on a self-help basis, and the government, through MCDE, provided teachers/supervisors to guide the students through their course of study.

Access to secondary schools is restricted to about 10.8% of Standard VIII enrolments (data refer to 1993/94). It is estimated that only 4.5% of the students aged 14-17 years are enrolled in secondary schools.

In 1993/94, there were 46,444 students in secondary schools (both public and private). Of these, 18,179 were female. The average student-teacher ratio was 6.8:1. There are, however, considerable variations, with 31 students per teacher in the government day schools, 20 students per teacher in the government boarding schools, and only about 14 students per teacher in some unaided private schools.

There are also four government technical colleges which are equipped to offer craft- and technical-level training in construction, engineering and business studies. There is a boarding accommodation for 1,058 technicians and 120 commercial students.  In 1995/96, there was a total of 1,054 students. In 1999 there were an estimated 1,305 students. Access is limited by the capacity of boarding accommodation. With the introduction of the modular training system which allows for multiple entry points and exit points, the government intends to increase access.

Enrolment in Technical and Vocational Colleges by course of study 1994–1999

Source: Ministry of Education, 2004.

There has been tremendous improvement in access to secondary education since 1994. Despite an enrolment in the 2001/02 school year estimated at 283,128 access is still very limited. With a GER of 18%, there is a big challenge to meet the key PIF objective on secondary education, i.e. to increase the number of primary school graduates who access secondary education from the current 16% to 30% by 2012. Access is also highly unequal, particularly affecting children from low-income families and girls. Studies show that only 20% of the Standard VIII candidates manage to get a place in government financed schools; the latter account for only around 37% of gross enrolment.

The secondary school results for 1994 showed a decline as can be observed in the table below:

National examination: MSCE results (1992-94)

Measurement of achievement according to nationally defined learning competencies as an exercise independent of classroom continuous assessment and national examinations, is a recent development in Malawi. However, within the framework of the Education For All 2000 Assessment competencies in life skills, English and numeracy were assessed in Standards IV and VI (Ministry of Education, 1999).

Results showed that over 60% of Standard IV pupils master a set of nationally defined basic learning competencies in numeracy and life skills, while only 37% master competencies in English. In Standard VI, only 0.6% of pupils reach the desirable mastery level in English literacy skills. The low performance in English at both Standard IV and VI levels is a clear indication that an appropriate assessment of literacy in the junior primary school should take into account the language of the locality, in order to be in line with the national policy of teaching the junior primary school pupils in their local language. The survival rate up to Standard V of male students has declined by 22.7%, from 68.9% in 1990 to 45.2% in 1997. That of female students has declined by 12%, from 55.6% in 1990 to 43.6% in 1997.

Tertiary education in Malawi encompasses teacher training (primary and secondary education), technical education, university education and other post-secondary professional courses. Tertiary education admits a small proportion of secondary school graduates. According to the Malawi Gender and Primary Schooling Drafting Report (1999), in 1995 there were 7,500 places available in tertiary institutions including teacher training, technical and vocational colleges and the University. This means that only about 0.3% of the target population have access to higher education.

Tertiary education institutions may be classified into two categories: certificate colleges, and diploma and degree colleges. The certificate colleges comprise the Teacher Training, Technical Training, Accountancy, Police, Nursing, and Armed Forces Colleges, and the School for Health Sciences. There are currently six teacher training colleges in Malawi, one in the northern region, three in central region and two in the southern region. There are eight technical colleges under the supervision of the Ministry of Labour. The Malawi College of Accountancy is under the Accountant General. The Police Training College is under Ministry of Home Affairs, while the Armed Forces College is under the Ministry of Defense. There are five certificate nursing schools under the Ministry of Health and Population. It is worth noting that a number of private tertiary colleges have mushroomed including some with religious bias.

Tertiary institutions offering diploma and degree programmes include the constituent colleges of the University of Malawi, i.e. Chancellor College, Bunda College of Agricultural Sciences, the Malawi Polytechnic, Kamuzu College of Nursing and the College of Medicine, and the Secondary School Teacher Training College. The University of Malawi was established to meet middle- and high-level human resource requirements for the management and development of the country’s economy.  The University is given the responsibility to create a capacity for research necessary for the generation of knowledge essential for the country’s economic development.

The Malawi Polytechnic offers a wide range of engineering, technical and business studies. The Mzuzu University is situated in the northern region of Malawi and offers a wide range of courses, including education. There are are two private higher education institutions that have recently been established (and have been recognized by the government) offering diploma and degree programmes (in education). These are University of Livingstonia, and the African Bible College. The African Bible College is a private college of higher learning offering diploma and degree programmes also in the fields of theology and journalism.

There are also a number of institutions established by the private sector that are offering tertiary level training in various fields of study whose statistics are not easy to get.

In 1993/94, there were 3,684 students at the University of Malawi (an estimated 3,527 in 1999, of whom 895 women). The lecturer-student ratio was 1:17. This represents a drop from a ratio of 1:10.3 in 1992/93, mainly due to the increase of student population and staff attrition.

The government policy concerning education for students with special needs emphasizes their integration as much as possible into normal schools. To encourage parents to send their children with special needs to school, certain provisions exist for remission of fees depending on the needs of the family. In secondary schools and universities, the Malawi Council for the Handicapped provides more assistance to students on the basis of merit and need.

While integration has worked for the deaf and the blind, there is need for special facilities and programmes for persons with other disabilities. In 1983, the National Statistical Office carried out a survey and found an estimated 190,000 disabled in Malawi. Ninety-three percent of these lived in rural areas. Forty-five percent were in the 15-49 years age group, and more than half of the disabled aged 10 years or more had never received any formal education.

A study carried out in 1991 in six districts showed a very low percentage of disabled children attending school, with only 431 disabled out of 2,264 children enrolled.

Currently, there are four residential special schools for the deaf/hearing impaired and two for the blind/visually impaired at the primary school level. These residential schools accommodate learners with severe impairments who are separated from learners without visual and or hearing impairments. Specialist teachers teach these learners. On the other hand, learners with mild impairments are integrated in resource centres attached to regular schools where a specialist teacher is deployed to the school to support the children with special needs and regular teachers. The rest of the learners with impairments who cannot be accommodated in either residential special school or a resource centre attend other regular schools. Itinerant teachers who operate in several schools in a catchment area assist these learners. This Itinerant Programme is operational in 24 out of 33 education districts.

At the secondary school level there are eight secondary schools where deaf learners are integrated, nine secondary schools for the blind and only two where learners with physical disabilities are integrated. At college level there are students with all impairments at Montfort teacher training college, Domasi College of Education and Chancellor College (University of Malawi).

Government is planning to introduce a component of special needs education in each of the six regular teacher training colleges so that all the students, upon graduation, have skills on how to handle children with special needs. The major challenge in the management of special needs education is inadequate funding.  Most of the specialized teaching and learning material are expensive and with inadequate funds there is always lack of materials in the centres. Residential schools and resource centres largely depend on donations.

In recent years, private schools have become a common feature in the country. The number of private schools has suddenly increased, particularly in urban areas due to the worsening quality of education provided in public schools characterized by extreme overcrowding and poor learning. Private schools charge fees, which in most cases are very high, and thus mainly cater for the urban elite.

For pre-school education, as there is not yet a national curriculum, institutions adopt the available curricula. Private primary and secondary schools follow the national curricula since their students sit the national examinations prepared by the Malawi National Examinations Board. There are, however, some institutions like the designated schools which cater to children of diplomats and other foreigners. These schools follow international curricula.

The private schools offering secondary education register with the “Private Schools Association of Malawi” (PRISAM) which is aimed at providing a voice and a policy forum for all registered private schools. Private secondary schools account for about 22% of the existing enrolled secondary school students and about 4% of the age cohort.

The government intends to establish a Private Schools Board (PSB) which will be charged with the responsibility to:

·        register, advise and monitor private educational institutions;

·        encourage private secondary schools to improve their physical facilities through a system of loans which the government shall establish once the PSB is in place and modalities have been worked out;

·        consider the needs of private secondary schools, especially in terms of teacher training;

·        empower the Advisory Service Division of the Ministry of Education to closely monitor the standards of private secondary schools in liaison with the PSB.

The teaching-learning materials still remain inadequate, with a pupil to textbook ratio of 4:1 and a few supplementary readers. In 1993/94, the average classroom-pupil ratio was 1:120. In most urban schools, classroom-pupil ratios were as high as 1:200.

There is a serious shortage of school furniture. In almost 75% of primary schools, pupils in Standards I-IV sit on the floors which are in many cases unsurfaced.

Some projects funded by the international co-operation involve construction, furnishing and equipping of classrooms and teacher colleges, or assistance in the publication of textbooks, strengthening the inspectorate and school broadcasting. Assistance is also provided for training abroad, adult literacy programmes and other informal education projects.

There has been some improvement in the provision of teaching/learning materials.  The pupil to textbook ratio is currently 1:1. There is still a serious shortage of pupils’ furniture. About 90% of pupils do not have access to pupils’ desks.

There were seven primary teacher-training colleges (TTC) with total enrolment of about 3,634 students in 1993/94. There are presently six TTCs with the total bed space for approximately 2,700 student teachers. The minimum entry qualification is Junior Certificate of Education (JCE). The training course, lasting one year, leads to T2 qualification for students with a full MSCE, and to T3 for those with a JCE.

In order to boost the number of trained teachers and to reduce the high pupil-teacher ratios, two special programmes were introduced: (i) a one-year full-time pre-service course for 540 untrained teachers at the Domasi Teacher Training College in 1987; (ii) a distance residential training programme called Malawi Special Teacher Education Programme was launched in 1990, with the objective of training 4,500 teachers in three years.

The Malawi Institute of Education has also been engaged in providing in-service teacher education programmes for primary school heads and inspectors/supervisors.

The government has also launched the Primary Teacher Development Programme (PTDP) which is designed to:

·        implement an annual programme to introduce the newly recruited untrained teachers into their job and provide them with the necessary survival skills;

·        train all untrained primary teachers up to a level where they can receive a T2 or T3 certificate (Malawi Integrated In-service Educational Programme, MITEP);

·        put in place a strengthened system for supervision and in-service training for all primary teachers (Malawi School Support Systems Programme, MSSSP).

In order to implement the PTDP, the Ministry of Education has set up the Primary Teacher Development Unit (PTDU) as a permanent unit within the Ministry, directly answerable to the Principal Secretary.

In order to meet the ever increasing high demand of qualified teachers, the MIITEP replaced the traditional conventional residential teacher training programme. The MIITEP has three components. Having been recruited and having gained experience in schools, MIITEP students undertake a three-moth college-based course. This is followed by five terms practicing teaching and undertaking self-study back in school, during which time it is intended that the students receive support not only from TTC staff, but also from school staff and from Primary Education Advisers (PEAs). At the end, students return to college for a six week revision and examination period. The MIITEP programme increased the total enrolment in the six TTC from 2,700 in 1993/94 to 9,401 in 1999. This increase, however, did not correspond with the student/qualified tutor ratio. The student/qualified tutor ratio in 1994 was 19:1 while in 1999 it was 36:1.

Secondary school teachers were being trained at Chancellor College, a constituent college of the University of Malawi. The output, however, did not match the shortage of teachers. In 1993, the government opened a secondary teacher training college at Domasi, in Zomba, by converting the Domasi Primary Teacher Training College into a college of education for secondary school teachers. This College is aimed at supplementing the teacher output of the University of Malawi. Total output per year, for both the University and the College of Education, is currently about 300 teachers. Although the establishment of Mzuzu University in 1998 has helped to increase access to university education a lot still needs to be done to widen the bottleneck in the secondary/tertiary transition.  The total enrolment at Mzuzu University is only about 200.

Until December 1998, the official minimum academic qualification for teaching in primary school was the Junior Certificate of Education. From January 1999, this has been revised upwards to the Malawi School Certificate of Education. The percentage of primary school teachers who are certified to teach according to national standards has stagnated at 81.4% after some shakes between 1990 and 1997. It grew by 0.3% between 1990 and 1994 and then decreased by 22.4% between 1994 and 1997. The sharp decline between 1994 and 1997 can be explained by the injection into the system of 20,000 untrained teachers as a remedy to the sharp rise in pupils  enrolment following the adoption of the policy of free primary education.

Information is not available.